Abstract
Both before and after 1066, a strong sense of ethnic identity existed in Normandy, at least among the elites. To untangle the course of ethnic relations after the conquest, this chapter examines the basis of Norman identity, or Normanitas, and its strengths and weaknesses. Before turning to the nature of pre-conquest Norman identity, however, this chapter investigates whether this is the main way in which the conquerors of England viewed themselves. The formulaic phrase ‘to his men, French and English’, which appears in the opening lines of thousands of English charters, dating from shortly after the conquest to the early 13th century, raises the question of whether the invaders considered themselves Norman or French.