Gender Bias Among the Big Five Orchestras - As Illustrated in Hiring Practices of Women Instrumentalists

To a great extent, women's dismissal from becoming professional classical musicians as orchestral instrumentalists, as college or conservatory students, or as composers and conductors has always been evident. Women have been subject to limitations and prescriptions as they have been encouraged as amateurs but not as professionals. As instrumentalists, women faced restrictions because of the sexual stereotyping of instruments. Admittedly, before the rise of conservatories in Europe and the US in the late 18th and 19th centuries, women musicians typically came from a limited number of backgrounds: the convent, the aristocracy, or musicians' families nurtured their daughter's talents as well as their sons. As concert artists, women keyboard performers, and violinists found acceptance beginning in the 18th century, thereby recognizing women of their subtle interpretive powers as instrumentalists. As solidified groups, orchestras and other ensembles remain close to all-male affairs, resisting diversity and evolution. Subsequently, the all-female orchestra and chamber ensembles of the late 19th and 20th centuries proved positive ways in which women players and conductors reacted to the exclusion and found experience and employment by advancing their institutions. In the years after WWII, women gradually gained access to professional symphony orchestras. However, women continue to experience gender bias and discrimination as professional musicians. Data was obtained for this study using findings from Goldin and Rouse's methodology, which consisted of an individual fixed-effect framework. In addition, to see the change, if any, data was collected from orchestra rosters surveyed online. This study aimed to create awareness about women's struggles as they shape their classical music performance careers. It does not intend to trace women's entire history but does outline parts in history essentially to showcase the progress of women's acceptance in the professional orchestral field. It explores the change of hired orchestral women throughout the 20th and 21st centuries.