Abstract
Extending previous theory and research, a causal mode! was tested in which adult males' perceptions of criticism and sarcasm from their fathers were exogenous variables and males' perceived confirmation and relational partners' reports of male partners' disconfirming behavior were endogenous variables. Consistent with expectations based on the men's literature, confirmation theory, and previous research, perceptions of both criticism and sarcasm contributed significantly, explaining 44.8 percent of the variance, to the prediction of adult sons' perceived confirmation scores. Furthermore, 75.87 percent of the variance in females' assessment of relational partners' disconfirming communication was explained by the model. Perceived criticism and sarcasm demonstrated direct in addition to indirect effects mediated by perceived confirmation.