Abstract
Abstract Folate cofactors are essential components of one carbon metabolism and are required for the biosynthesis of purines, pyrimidines, serine and methionine. The classical folate antagonist methotrexate (MTX) continues to be a universal component of most ALL treatment regimens. MTX is retained within cells as long-chain polyglutamates (MTX-PGs) after metabolism by the enzyme folylpoly-γ -glutamate synthetase (FPGS). Intracellular retention of MTX-PGs results in enhanced cytotoxicity due to prolonged inhibition of dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) and thymidylate synthetase (TS). The FPGS gene is regulated by the transcription factors NFY and Sp1. Using DNaseI assays we identified a hypersensitive site mapping closely upstream of exon 1, suggesting that chromatin remodeling may contribute to FPGS gene regulation. To investigate the role of histone modifications and chromatin remodeling on FPGS expression and uncover interactions between NFY, Sp1 and HDAC1, we performed co-immunoprecipitation and Western blotting. Our results demonstrate that HDAC1 complexes with NFY and Sp1 transcription factors in both B- and T-ALL cells. DNA affinity precipitation assays (DAPA) revealed that HDAC1 is recruited by NFY and Sp1 to the FPGS promoter. These findings suggest that transcription of the FPGS gene may be regulated by NFY and Sp1 factors interacting with HDAC1, and leading to chromatin remodeling. We then examined the effect of the histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACIs) sodium butyrate (NaBu) and suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid (SAHA) on the expression of FPGS and other folate-related genes in NALM6 (Bp-ALL), REH (TEL/AML1+, Bp-ALL), SupB15 (BCR/ABL+, Bp-ALL), and CCRF-CEM (T-ALL) cells using qRT-PCR. In all cell lines examined, treatment with HDACIs increased FPGS mRNA expression by 2- to 5-fold, whereas the level of DHFR and TS mRNA expression were decreased. On this basis, we hypothesized that induction of FPGS expression by HDACIs, results in higher accumulation of MTX-PG and enhanced MTX cytotoxicity in ALL cells. Further, the concomitant decrease in the expression of the MTX-PG target enzymes DHFR and TS, would enhance the cytotoxicity of the combination of HDACIs plus MTX in ALL cells. To test this hypothesis, NALM6, REH, and SupB15 cells were treated with MTX (4h) + SAHA (24h), and cell viability assessed. We determined that SAHA increased the intracellular accumulation of long chain MTX-PGs (n ≥3 Glu) in ALL cells, correlating with the upregulation of FPGS expression in SAHA-treated cells. Treatment with MTX + SAHA increased cytotoxicity by ~30% with a calculated combination index of ≤ 0.8 indicating synergy. Analysis of apoptosis using AnnexinV/PI staining revealed a 2 to 3-fold increase in apoptotic cell death in all cell lines treated with this combination. Our data suggest HDACIs enhance MTX cytotoxicity by upregulation of FPGS expression, increased accumulation of MTXPG and downregulation of DHFR and TS. The synergism exhibited by the combination of MTX and SAHA suggests it should be tested in ALL patients, in particular those who exhibit phenotypes with de novo or acquired resistance to MTX.