Abstract
Islamophobia (i.e., the fear of Islam and Muslims) increases dramatically in response to local and global events. The Perceived Islamophobia Scale (PIS) captures perceptions of Islamophobia within a culture via three subscales titled Islamophobia in the Media, Fear of Islamization, and General Fear (Kunst et al., 2013). The PIS has been validated among both Muslims and non-Muslims in several countries. Although it has been used in US samples, exploring its psychometric properties among Muslims living in the United States (MLUS) is needed as MLUS are particularly vulnerable for experiencing Islamophobia. The current study validated the PIS in a representative sample of 350 MLUS (50% women; 33% immigrants). Confirmatory Factor Analyses (CFAs) revealed both a four-factor structure, encompassing the three original subscales alongside a separate factor with the reverse-scored items (Items 3, 4, and 5), and a higher-order factor structure encompassing all 12 items. This suggests that the full-scale PIS may be used as a standalone measure. Tests of measurement invariance across gender, immigrant status, and denomination of Islam suggested the PIS demonstrates strict measurement invariance, but only when used without its reverse-scored items. Further, there was a positive association between total scores on the PIS and the Everyday Discrimination Scale (EDS; Williams et al., 1997), demonstrating construct validity of the PIS with an established measure of individual-level discrimination. Further tools are needed to capture the private and structural forms of Islamophobia experienced by Muslims.
•Islamophobia in its multiple forms is an ongoing stressor for Muslims everywhere.•We established the utility of the PIS as a valid and reliable tool among MLUS.•We recommend developing measures that capture private and structural Islamophobia.